What Is An American Essays (556 words) - , Term Papers

What Is An American ?What is an American The attributes of the regular American has changed radically consistently. We have changed from multiple points of view from when we formally got free in 1776 to the here and now in 2001. A portion of the transformation we have experienced as a nation have been to improve things, others for the most exceedingly terrible. In the twentieth and now the twenty-first hundreds of years, the American culture has grown up with new thoughts on life and new innovation that has become a piece of life. The Modern American can be depicted as somebody who is persevering, independent, and electronically progressed. Ladies used to remain at home and deal with the house while their spouses worked. Presently ladies are working in indistinguishable fields from men, even in high glory occupations, for example, specialists, attorneys, and leaders of notable organizations. The present American makes their cash by buckling down. The common American specialist begins at the base and buckles down get to the top. All over, individuals are utilizing gadgets, for example, mobile phones, 2-way pagers, PCs, different gadgets that were not accessible previously and have now become a significant mostly American's live. Americans have been baffling in the course of recent years or thereabouts. Issues have heightened in sedate use, abhor violations, and other negative activities, for example, high school pregnancy. Ruler 2 There have been a few upgrades in the province of Americans like the decreased pace of smoking and crimes. It is imperative to advance in the battling of medication use, despise wrongdoings, just as our different issues to improve the present society. The activities of Americans presently will influence the general public later on, regardless of whether it is one year from now or one quite a while from now, which makes it critical to pick what is best for the country. Being an American, I have a portion of the qualities that the Modern American have. I am diligent employee, holding a requesting after school occupation and staying aware of my investigations simultaneously. I am a piece of the electronic rage that has assumed control over the world inside the most recent ten years. My convictions are that hardware are the way to accomplishment later on so I wish to keep myself educated in this viewpoint. Alongside a significant number of my kindred young people, I am free. I can think, act, and settle on significant choices all alone without the assistance of somebody revealing to me how to carry on with my life. I don't accept that I am a piece of our general public's concern, however that I am a piece of its answer. It is significant for each American to show high characteristics on the grounds that a chain is just as solid as its most fragile connection. For this situation it implies that our general public can just flourish with the aggregate as sistance of the entirety of its individuals. Present day Americans have more noteworthy, progressively troublesome issues to manage each day. It has gotten progressively mind boggling to experience existence without hitting a couple of knocks in transit. As the country develops more established, it must be kept up that we were given our opportunity however not to the degree of manhandling it. Present day Americans must endeavor to improve society and to make the United States a superior spot to live now, and later on. American History

Leadership And Management In Public Relations Management Essay

Initiative And Management In Public Relations Management Essay The workmanship and sociology of examining patterns, foreseeing their outcomes, guiding authoritative pioneers and actualizing arranged projects of activity, which will serve both the association and the open intrigue. (Asch and Solomon 1946) Advertising point principally to give a correspondence between an association and its clients. It is one of the most significant business works with respect to any association. It is basic to ceaselessly check its notoriety in the market that it provides food. Additionally, with the current atmosphere of worldwide expansions that greater part of the cutting edge organizations practice, it is basic that the association keeps contact with what it needs to depict to the shoppers so desires from the association is moreover. Open Relation is utilized to manufacture affinity withâ employees, clients, speculators, voters or the general public. Almost any association that entertains itself with being depicted in the open condition utilizes some degree of advertising. Open connection isn't constrained to just expanding mindfulness about an association. It manages other complex elements of checking and observing the responses of its activities( Ahluwalia et al 2000). This delineates what the association reflects to its market subsequently helping in choosing the following game-plan as and when required. Exposure is one of the significant apparatuses for Public relations. Most; if not all, PR crusades contribute vigorously for exposure. Exposure includes spreading of data for an item, individual, administration, cause or association to increase open mindfulness. Exposure helps in successful PR arranging and is one of the most popular strategies embraced by any PR for an association. In present occasions, experts generally use innovation as their principle instrument to get over their messages to target crowds (Collins et al, 1975). Customarily, probably the most seasoned apparatus utilized by advertising experts is a press/media unit. It is normally an assortment of limited time materials with the end goal of dissemination. These give data about an occasion, association, business, or even an individual. Data likewise incorporates, reality sheets, official statements (or media discharges), media alarms, handouts, pamphlets, photos with subtitles, duplicates of any media clasps, and social mediums. As of late, most associations may have a site with a connection which normally refreshes the message that is required to be imparted with the end goal of correspondence. Online form of such news is one of the fundamentals that is received as of late. Other broadly utilized apparatuses incorporate leaflets, pamphlets and yearly reports. (Basuroy et al 2003) In the ongoing occasions, innovative employments of informal organizations, writes, and even web radio advertising experts encourage to straightforwardly send messages through their separate mediums. Techniques are utilized to discover the response of the crowd in the present market. Asking into the positive interests of the intended interest groups broadly incorporate the utilization of reviews, leading examination or even center gatherings. Different strategies are attempted to draw in target crowds by utilizing the data assembled. This is then guided as a message to them utilizing instruments, for example, social or other famous mediums.'(Burrough and Bryan,2006) Progressively, organizations are using intuitive person to person communication choices, for example, media sites, Twitter and Facebook, as devices in advancement for the PR battles. This can be credited to the way that not at all like the conventional instruments, online life outlets empower the association to take part in two-manner correspondence, and get moderately speedier criticisms thus effectively supporting in settling on precise choices. Complementary nature of interchanges Separated from Effective Public Relations by Cutlip(2010) The above figure represents, correspondence is a complementary procedure of trading signs to educate, teach, or convince, in view of shared implications and molded by the communicators relationship and the social setting. (Godes, 2004) NEGATIVE PUBLIC RELATIONS: Negative Public connection happens under conditions and circumstance when the message sent across to general society by the association is seen not rational to what it depicts. It might be communicated as that procedure which compromises the notoriety and corporate personality of an association because of unrealistic activities that prompts far-fetched circumstances and conditions. (Eliasberg et al 1997) Be that as it may, this marvel can be either deliberate i:e. (by an outside source, for example, a contender) or accidental (insufficient research of a normal response or poor inner correspondences ). (Hueng et al,1982) Attributable to the idea of this report, the scientist has decided to consider just the ominous advertising for this investigation and accordingly Black advertising will just be referenced once. From that point, steps to manage horrible advertising will be incorporated for additional piece of this work. Deliberate Negative Public Relations It demonstrates in setting to frequencies which are conveyed about by outsider source with aim to discolor the notoriety of a focused on association, these sort of purposeful negative PR systems are otherwise called Black Public Relations (James and Caryn 2006). It includes gathering data utilizing significant level of mechanical undercover work and serious knowledge to reveal the focused on organization privileged insights that are troublesome to the associations partners (Hueng et al,1982). The main target of such practices is to deliberately upset the channels and messages of correspondence between the association and its investors. This sort of negative open connection is a dishonest business practice yet it is been generally utilized against business rivals. (Grossmen et al1984) Unexpected Negative PR/Unfavorable Public relations. This is an event under conditions when an association is confronting an open test to its notoriety. For the most part these difficulties may come in the accompanying structures:- An examination from an administration organization. A criminal charge. A media request. An investors claim An infringement of ecological guidelines At long last an infringement in various different situations including the legal,â ethical and/orâ financial factors (Godes et al 2004). The above are difficulties that an association faces which may prompt an ominous Public relations circumstance for an association. Be that as it may, the greater part of them can be contained very quickly whenever took care of with direness. For the most part, wellspring of a negative Public connection is conceived out of botched emergencies circumstance in an association. Emergency correspondence is of most extreme significance to contain any such far-fetched conditions. In the event that productively took care of, emergency correspondence can turn into the best guard against any issue transforming into a completely blow fiasco. An outline to clarify the above can be found on account of Johnson. In 1982, after cyanide was found in certain containers of a JJ item Tylenol, J and J quickly declared a review of an expected supply of around a hundred million available for use in its residential market of the United States and other remote market (Berger,2005). This choice of Johnson, to collaborate completely with the media, earned it heaps of gestures of recognition for its business guideline of being socially dependable. The resultant was that the organization got extra positive press inclusion when it in this way presented its new alter safe bundling. Likewise In March 2005, a lady bit into a finger while eating bean stew at Wendys. Wendys reacted speedily and shut down that area. This was trailed via cautiously disposing of the various bean stew that was dated as the disputable stock. The area was revived simply after a careful examination of the remainder of the stocks.This emergency could have harmed Wendys picture, however inferable from it reacting appropriately and fittingly, next to no harm was seen to their picture (Berger,2005). These are two of the couple of models which show proficient emergency the executives techniques in spite of not being in charge the negative PR at the underlying phases of the emergency. Johnson had the option to increase positive exposure for the brief dynamic and was in this way ready to contain the circumstance before it left extent. Then again, numerous different associations have indicated need dealing with an emergency circumstance and have languished over the equivalent. Source Perrier is a case of such an association, that couldn't defeat negative exposure when its top administration showed poor emergency the board. Hints of benzene were found in the companys filtered water in 1990, anyway the organization guaranteed the open that it was just contained to bottles in North America. During a similar time, researchers discovered hints of benzene in its filtered water which was being sold in Europe. This time, the administration accused it upon a polluted separating framework a consoled that it was being handled with most extreme desperation. Never the less, media had then inspected the brands water from all its predominant market and found that the circumstance had been persevering for a more drawn out timeframe and that the benzene bound item had been selling all around the globe. The media addressed Perriers respectability and worry for open wellbeing, and the organization lost its prevailing situation in the commercial center; it has been not able t o revamp its notoriety (Bogart and Dave 2001). The accessible writing on the wellspring of negative PR isn't lucidly indisputable as various scientists have distinction in the degree and width with respect to their view about the reasons for unavoidable PR. Lerbinger (1997), properties two causes i:e. the board disappointment and ecological powers. He classifies the two into eight classifications of emergency circumstances which are as per the following: Normal for instance Asian Tsunami which influenced everything the same I:

Columbia University to open Center for Veteran Transition and Integration COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Columbia University to open Center for Veteran Transition and Integration COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Earlier this month, Columbia University announced the creation of a new Center for Veteran Transition and Integration that will provide innovative educational programming and support for veterans making the transition to two- and four-year colleges, graduate and professional schools, civilian life, and the workforce. Major Michael Abrams, a veteran of the war in Afghanistan and a current Marine Corps Reservist, as well as the founder of FourBlock, a program to prepare veterans for business careers, will lead the center as its executive director. Beth Morgan, former executive director of Service to School and director of higher education initiatives for the Marine Corps, joins the center as director of higher education transition and partnerships. The Center for Veterans will open in the fall of 2017. Columbia’s long-standing commitment to veterans can be traced back to 1947, when the School of General Studies was founded to integrate into the University community thousands of returning military veterans seeking education after World War II through the first GI Bill. Today more than 650 veterans are enrolled at Columbia, most of them supported by the Post-9/11 GI Bill and the Yellow Ribbon Program. The University has enrolled more student-veterans than all other Ivy League schools combined, while maintaining a graduation rate above 90 percent and a record of job and graduate school placement that equals Columbia’s non-veteran graduates. Highlighting this success, this year’s valedictorian at the School of General Studies is Colin Valentini, a Marine Corps veteran who came to Columbia to study applied mathematics. Columbia’s successful efforts in helping military service members make the transition to a rigorous academic environment has prompted interest from other universities, employers, government agencies, and veteran-support organizations across the country that would like to replicate its veteran support model. The new veterans center will draw on Columbia’s expertise in curriculum development, instructional technology, and support services in facilitating veterans’ success in an academic setting. In collaboration with a network of public and private partners, the center will provide access to world-class technology and technical support. It will serve military service members at all levels, enlisted and officers, as well as active-duty military personnel preparing for transition, veterans already in higher education, and veterans in the workforce, providing them with the best-in-class resources that they need to ensure their continued academic and professional development. The experience and expertise that Abrams and Morgan bring to this endeavor will be integral in achieving the Center’s vision. Read more about the Center at Columbia News.

Domestic Violence The Horrific Effects Of Abuse

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: The Horrifying Effects of Abuse â€Å"To those who abuse: the sin yours, the crime is yours, and the shame is yours. To those who protect the perpetrators: blaming the victims only masks the evil within, making you as guilty as those who abuse. Stand up for the innocent or go down with the rest†¦Ã¢â‚¬  These are the words of an individual who sees too clearly the injustice which comes with domestic violence toward women. The United States government estimates one in every four women will experience domestic violence in her lifetime. Domestic abuse remains a significant social problem in many towns, cities and neighborhoods and though the victims involved may often remain silent, its emotional, psychological and physical effects still linger on. Domestic violence defined by law according The United States Department of Justice is â€Å"†¦a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner.† The harrowing details of many stories narrated by women nation-wide will continue to place domestic violence in the societal spotlight. It is considered a national crime; however, there are many who still debate its exaggeration and the justice that it should accompany. The traditional theories of justice are contradictorily blind to the injustice women face on a daily basis. Many philosophers, traditionalists and post-modernists maintain the notion that a woman’s role is mostly in her privateShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Intimate Partner Violence On Children Essay811 Words   |  4 Pages The effects of intimate partner violence are attenuating and extend far beyond physical scarring. The abuse of woman and children has been researched extensively by Rachel Pain (2014, p. 536) as acts of â€Å"terrorism within the home†. If we are to compare the experience of women and children living in violent homes and the act of ‘terrorism’ itself we get a corresponding experience (Pain, 2014, p. 546). The construction of fear, the loss of identity, the ongoing distress of constantly feeling unsafeRead MoreChild Abuse Is The Most Important Part Of Today s Society1302 Words   |  6 Pagesparenting involves the use of excessive violence as a form of punishment. Children are placed in a horrific situation through abuse instigated by their parents that damages the child physically and psychologically. Children everywhere are being abused by their parents whether it be physical or emotional abuse. In order to help prevent child abuse, one must first understand some of the reasons that parents abuse their children. There is no excuse to abuse one’s child and there have been many studiesRead MoreDomestic Violence And Its Effects On Society869 Words   |  4 Pageswith a neglectful nature and/or an imbalance of neurotransmitters can impact an individual’s development and overall self-image. Equally, an individual’s experience with domestic violence and its horrific ramifications can also impact a person’s psychological, emotional, physical, and social growth. Domestic Violence Domestic violence, is a virulent calamity that has woven its way into our society for thousands of years. It is not biased to a particular race, group, or culture. Grievously, it has anRead MoreThe Masked Women1130 Words   |  5 PagesThe Masked Women Females’ ages 18 to 24 and 25 to 34 generally experienced the highest rates of intimate partner violence (â€Å"Statistics†). People so young are being brought into horrible situations that can cause emotional, mental and physical harm that has long lasting effects on them. The ad â€Å"It Rarely Stops† by The National Domestic Hotline was posted on YouTube in September 2015. In this ad, a young women is gazing into her bathroom mirror (the camera) with a sorrowful look on her face. SheRead MoreDomestic Violence s Impact On A Person1429 Words   |  6 PagesDomestic Violence s Impact Upon A Person Not all people think about domestic violence but for a large amount of people it is an everyday hell. Most people have the privilege of going about their day carefree of who they will see at a time during that day, while others are fearful of seeing one or more people throughout their day. Domestic violence also know as partner abuse is a series of abusive patterns that are between two people, most commonly spouses. Emotional abuse, physical abuse, and sexualRead MoreDomestic Violence And Its Effects On Society1649 Words   |  7 PagesIn America most cases of Domestic Violence are never actually reported, many times these cases go unheard and the victims suffer in silence. The worn out cries of a battered woman as she lays on the ground clutching herself and begging her significant other to just stop. The bruises and cuts that remain unreported due to the victim claiming they accidentally fell yet again. The abusers tend to make the victim almost entirely dependable on them. An a buser will do this to gain control and to createRead MoreAnimal Cruelty And Domestic Violence Essay1159 Words   |  5 PagesWhile there is a common belief that Animal Cruelty and Domestic Violence are two separate issues, but, upon closer investigation proves there is a prominent correlation between the two. Despite the whether you believe animals and humans should be given equivalent attention remains a debated subject. Many people would answer that they should, as both human animals and nonhuman animals share many characteristics in the sense that they are both sentient living beings; both can feel pain, experienceRead MoreThe Effects Of Violence On Domestic Violence1380 Words   |  6 Pagesobject to violence, because when it appears to do good, the good is only temporary; the evil it does is permanent†, quoted by Mahatma Gandhi. Violence is defined as an unjust or unwarranted exertion of power or force to intentionally injure, damage, or destroy something or someone. Amongst the various types of violence, there is one in particular that has been causing an ongoing debate within societies across the world; this certain type of violence is known as domestic violence. Domestic violence, alsoRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Domestic Abuse1340 Words   |  6 Pages1301 Lacina-Taylor 2 December 2014 Stop The Abuse Underreported and underestimated, domestic abuse rips families apart every single day. Domestic violence comes in mainly five different forms, physical, sexual, psychological, emotional, and economic. This violence ruins families, demoralizes the victims, and the public downplays the household terrorism that goes on every day. Generally thought of as taboo, the public belittles and humorizes domestic abuse as a way to deal with it, that avoidance mustRead MoreThe Correlation Between Domestic Violence And Post Traumatic Stress Disorder1182 Words   |  5 PagesThe Correlation Between Domestic Violence and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Domestic violence is a horrific circumstance that is an ongoing issue to the public health of the world. Affecting the lives of millions annually by psychologically crippling the minds of the affected through chronic exposure to abuse. According to the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (2014), 1.3 million women are subjected to this devastating situation. â€Å"No such global estimate was applicable for men† (Trevillion

The Significance of Act 3 Scene 3 of William Shakespeares...

The Significance of Act 3 Scene 3 of William Shakespeares Othello Othello was written by Shakespeare around 1602 and was set 35 years previously to that time (around 1571) during the Elizabethan era. Shakespeare got the idea for the play from the Italian Novella Gli Hecatommithi and only changed minor details slightly. He kept the same plot but some of the characters and themes in the play were very different. The play itself is a tragedy and includes the things that Aristotle defined as what a tragedy should include. Firstly, a protagonist, this is Othello. He is the protagonist as the play shows the story of his fall from a place of eminence as is required in all tragedies according to†¦show more content†¦His manipulation leads to the deaths of Desdemona and Othello. In the play there is physical movement of the characters from Venice to Cyprus, which helps towards the insecurities of Othello developing further. Venice was where the love between Desdemona and Othello developed and therefore gives the relationship a sense of security. In Venice any problems there is order and control and any problems are dealt with swiftly and even though Othello is still an outsider he is valuable to them. However, the move to Cyprus makes Othello vulnerable in that he is no longer valued and is being moved away from what he knows - into the unknown, which makes it easier for Iago to play on Othellos insecurities as they are more susceptible to attack. Before they move there is a storm, which relates to the turbulence to Othellos life that will be brought with the move. The scene I am focusing on is Act 3 Scene 3; this is the longest and most dramatic scene in the play. It is the climatic turning point of the play and is significant in that it is the first time Iago really begins to take hold of Othello, to manipulate him and make him lose his trust in Cassio and Desdemona. A key event in this scene is when Iago says Ha! I like not that As this is the beginning of Iagos manipulation over Othello making Othello curious as to whatShow MoreRelatedOthello: The Tragedy of an Aristotelian Tragic Hero Essay1531 Words   |  7 PagesShakespeares play, â€Å"Othello, the Moor of Venice,† is a powerful example of a tragedy and it’s main character, Othello, is an excellent illustration of what Aristotle constitutes as a tragic hero. The play imitates life through basic human emotions such as jealousy and rage. In addition, Othello is far from being a perfect character - another quality that meets Aristotles requirements. Othello also matches Aristotles ideas of tragic hero because our Othello realizes the error of his ways, causingRead MoreThe Tragedy Of Othello The Moor Of Venice Essay1743 Words   |  7 Pages ‘Without setting, characters are simply there, in a vacuum, with no reason to act and most importantly, no reason to care.’ The setting gives place for a narrative to begin and evolve from, without a strong setting some texts may be difficult to interpret without extra contextual and historical knowledge of the time period of which it was written. Shakespeare’s The Tragedy of Othello the Moor of Venice written 1603 was set in Italy, in the Venetian Republic . This setting was gaining popularityRead MoreThe Symbolism Of Othello By William Shakespeare958 Words   |  4 Pagesme and I will treasure it as long as I live. In William Shakespeare’s play, Othello, the symbolism of Desdemona’s handkerchief is central to the play’s tragic dà ©nouement. The handkerchief serves a very important role in shaping the story to the way it is, it ultimately becomes the reason for Othello’s brutal murder of his wife, Desdemona. In addition, the handker chief is shown as a symbol of â€Å"different things from various events in this play† (Othello). In the first, it is shown as a symbol of Othello’sRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1218 Words   |  5 PagesIn a historical time period where emphasis was shifting from religion to race and ethnicity, key indicators of differences that perpetuated into racial prejudice and racial ideologies are evident in Othello by William Shakespeare. Although racism was not fully formed at this moment in history, Othello can be interpreted as a representation and an exploration of this shift in ideology. In the past, before this change toward racial differences, religion was the major segretory factor in signifyingRead MoreThe Importance of Act 3 Scene 3 to William Shakespeares Othello1463 Words   |  6 PagesThe Importance of Act 3 Scene 3 to William Shakespeares Othello In this essay I am going to investigate the importance and effectiveness of Act 3 scene 3 considering its significance in terms of plot, characters and theme and its dramatic power. Throughout this scene there are striking examples of the main themes of the play, one of these being appearance and reality. Iago fools everyone in the play into believing hes honest. No one even suspects him of treacheryRead MoreThe Significance of Death and Sex to William Shakespeare1482 Words   |  6 PagesThe Significance of Death and Sex to William Shakespeare In this essay, I will consider Death and Sin in Shakespearean drama and I would like to look at three of Shakespeares tragic plays: Hamlet, Othello and King Lear. Shakespeare uses many themes in all his play that attract audiences throughout history. The things he wrote about are as relevant now as they were in his time. Death and Sin were issues that are always around. In his plays, Shakespeare could comment on these things andRead More Iago in William Shakespeares Othello Essay2704 Words   |  11 PagesIago in William Shakespeares Othello Unequivocally, Iago plays an important and major function in the tragedy of Othello. By the end of the play, Iago has been directly responsible for the deaths of Roderigo, Emilia and the protagonist and his love. Iagos importance to the play is revealed by his contribution to the plot and his significance relative to other characters. Iagos function, which invariably adds to the importance he has on the play, is to lead to the downfall of Othello thereforeRead More The Significance of the Players in Hamlet Essay899 Words   |  4 PagesThe Significance of the Players in Hamlet      Ã‚   Most characters in Hamlet present themselves as something other than themselves or how as we, the audience, or another character thinks they should appear.   Two of the main characters in this play, Hamlet and King Claudius, are constantly acting as something other than their true nature.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ironically, the characters that invoke changes in Hamlet and King Claudius to reveal their real personalities are the players, merely actors themselves, notRead MoreCompare Relationships Between Romeo and Juliet and Between Desdemona and Othello 1931 Words   |  8 PagesIn Two of Shakespeare’s most noted plays Romeo and Juliet and Othello Shakespeare explores the essence of tragedy. How regardless of what measures they take my the nature of the play both relationships are doomed before they flourish, The extent in witch obsession clouds the minds of the luckless heroes and by what extent the women seem to be more in control of the men than the other way round. In the plays ‘Romeo and Juliet’ and ‘Othello’ by William Shakespeare, Shakespeare uses the concept ofRead MoreWilliam Shakespeares As You Like It As a Study of Perception and Misperception2315 Words   |  10 PagesWilliam Shakespeares As You Like It As a Study of Perception and Misperception The concepts of perception and misperception are common themes in many of Shakespeares plays and can be found in his comedies, tragedies and histories alike. Shakespeare explores these often-parallel elements through several different forms in his work, such as disguise, mistaken identity and blindness, and events caused by these can lead to amusing, confusing or sometimes tragic consequences

Literature Search Free Essays

Grap, Mary. ,Munro, Cindy. , Hummel, Russel. We will write a custom essay sample on Literature Search or any similar topic only for you Order Now , Jessica. , Elswick, and Sessler Curtis. 2005. Effect of Backrest Elevation on the Development of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 3, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia is a common complication of mechanical ventilation. Backrest position and time spent supine are critical risk factors for aspiration, increasing the risk for pneumonia. Empirical evidence of the effect of backrest positions on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia, especially during mechanical ventilation over time, is limited. Objective To describe the relationship between backrest elevation and development of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Methods : It is a nonexperimental, longitudinal, descriptive design was used. The Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score was used to determine ventilator-associated pneumonia. Backrest elevation was measured continuously with a transducer system. Data were obtained from laborato ry results and medical records from the start of mechanical ventilation up to 7 days. †¢ Results Sixty-six subjects were monitored (276 patient days). Mean backrest elevation for the entire study period was 21. 7 °. Backrest elevations were less than 30 ° 72% of the time and less than 10 ° 39% of the time. The mean Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score increased but not significantly, and backrest elevation had no direct effect on mean scores. A model for predicting the Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score at day 4 included baseline score, percentage of time spent at less than 30 ° on study day 1, and score on the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II, explaining 81% of the variability (F=7. 1, P=. 003). Literature Search 3 †¢ Conclusions Subjects spent the majority of the time at backrest elevations less than 30 °. Only the combination of early, low backrest elevation and severity of illness affected the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Amelia Ross. (2006). The impact of an evidence-based practice education program on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ret rieved from, www. elsevierhealth. com/journals/iccn. on March 2, 2012. Abstract BACKGROUND: Despite strong evidence in the literature on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), nurses continue to view oral care as a comfort measure with low priority and utilize foam swabs rather than toothbrushes. Although an evidence-based oral care protocol existed and best-practice oral care tools were available, the VAP rates had not significantly decreased even though nurses reported providing oral care. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to determine if an evidence-based practice (EBP) educational program would improve the quality of oral care delivered to mechanically ventilated patients; thereby, reducing the VAP rate. RESULTS: Improvement in oral health was demonstrated by a decrease in median scores on the Oral Assessment Guide (pre (11. 0), post (9. 0)). A t-test analysis revealed a statistically significant difference (p=0. 0002). The frequency of oral care documentation also improved as demonstrated by a positive shift to the more frequent timeframes. The VAP rates have decreased by 50% following the EBP education Literature Search 4 ntervention. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of an EBP educational program focused on patient outcome rather than a task to be performed improved the quality of oral care delivered by the nursing staff. Carolyn L. , Cason, Tracy, Tyner. , Sue, Saunders, Lisa, Broom. , 2007. Nurses Implementation of Guidelines for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia from the Ce nters for Disease Control and Prevention. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 1, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia accounts for 47% of infections in patients in intensive care units. Adherence to the best nursing practices recommended in the 2003 guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention should reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Objective To evaluate the extent to which nurses working in intensive care units implement best practices when managing adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation. †¢ Methods Nurses attending education seminars in the United States completed a 29-item questionnaire about the type and frequency of care provided. †¢ Results Twelve hundred nurses completed the questionnaire. Most (82%) reported compliance with hand-washing guidelines, 75% reported wearing gloves, half reported elevating the head of the bed, a third reported performing subglottic suctioning, and half reported having an oral care protocol in their hospital. Nurses in hospitals with an oral care protocol reported better compliance with hand washing and maintaining head-of-bed elevation, were more likely to regularly provide oral care, and were more familiar with rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia and the organisms involved than were nurses working in hospitals without such protocols. Literature Search5 †¢ Conclusions The guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are not consistently or uniformly implemented. Practices of nurses employed in hospitals with oral care protocols are more often congruent with the guidelines than are practices of nurses employed in hospitals without such protocols. Significant reductions in rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia may be achieved by broader implementation of oral care protocols. Grap, Mary. ,Munro, Cindy. , Hummel, Russel. , Jessica. Elswick, and Sessler Curtis. 2005. Effect of Backrest Elevation on the Development of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 3, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia is a common complication of mechanical ventilation. Backrest position and time spent supine are critical risk factors for aspiration, increasing the risk for pneumonia. Empi rical evidence of the effect of backrest positions on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia, especially during mechanical ventilation over time, is limited. Objective To describe the relationship between backrest elevation and development of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Methods : It is a nonexperimental, longitudinal, descriptive design was used. The Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score was used to determine ventilator-associated pneumonia. Backrest elevation was measured continuously with a transducer system. Data were obtained from laboratory results and medical records from the start of mechanical ventilation up to 7 days. †¢ Results Sixty-six subjects were monitored (276 patient days). Mean backrest elevation for the entire study period was 21. 7 °. Backrest elevations were less than 30 ° 72% of the time and less than 10 ° 39% of the time. The mean Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score increased but not significantly, and backrest elevation had no direct effect on mean scores. A model for predicting the Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score at day 4 included baseline score, percentage of time spent at less than 30 ° on study day 1, and score on the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II, explaining 81% of the variability (F=7. 1, P=. 003). Literature Search 3 †¢ Conclusions Subjects spent the majority of the time at backrest elevations less than 30 °. Only the combination of early, low backrest elevation and severity of illness affected the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Amelia Ross. (2006). The impact of an evidence-based practice education program on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ret rieved from, www. elsevierhealth. com/journals/iccn. on March 2, 2012. Abstract BACKGROUND: Despite strong evidence in the literature on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), nurses continue to view oral care as a comfort measure with low priority and utilize foam swabs rather than toothbrushes. Although an evidence-based oral care protocol existed and best-practice oral care tools were available, the VAP rates had not significantly decreased even though nurses reported providing oral care. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to determine if an evidence-based practice (EBP) educational program would improve the quality of oral care delivered to mechanically ventilated patients; thereby, reducing the VAP rate. RESULTS: Improvement in oral health was demonstrated by a decrease in median scores on the Oral Assessment Guide (pre (11. 0), post (9. 0)). A t-test analysis revealed a statistically significant difference (p=0. 0002). The frequency of oral care documentation also improved as demonstrated by a positive shift to the more frequent timeframes. The VAP rates have decreased by 50% following the EBP education Literature Search 4 ntervention. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of an EBP educational program focused on patient outcome rather than a task to be performed improved the quality of oral care delivered by the nursing staff. Carolyn L. , Cason, Tracy, Tyner. , Sue, Saunders, Lisa, Broom. , 2007. Nurses Implementation of Guidelines for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia from the Ce nters for Disease Control and Prevention. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 1, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia accounts for 47% of infections in patients in intensive care units. Adherence to the best nursing practices recommended in the 2003 guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention should reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Objective To evaluate the extent to which nurses working in intensive care units implement best practices when managing adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation. †¢ Methods Nurses attending education seminars in the United States completed a 29-item questionnaire about the type and frequency of care provided. †¢ Results Twelve hundred nurses completed the questionnaire. Most (82%) reported compliance with hand-washing guidelines, 75% reported wearing gloves, half reported elevating the head of the bed, a third reported performing subglottic suctioning, and half reported having an oral care protocol in their hospital. Nurses in hospitals with an oral care protocol reported better compliance with hand washing and maintaining head-of-bed elevation, were more likely to regularly provide oral care, and were more familiar with rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia and the organisms involved than were nurses working in hospitals without such protocols. Literature Search5 †¢ Conclusions The guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are not consistently or uniformly implemented. Practices of nurses employed in hospitals with oral care protocols are more often congruent with the guidelines than are practices of nurses employed in hospitals without such protocols. Significant reductions in rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia may be achieved by broader implementation of oral care protocols. How to cite Literature Search, Essay examples

Restoration of Euglycemia After Duodenal Bypass Surgery

Questions: 1. What is the most commonly used restrictive bariatric procedure worldwide?2. What is the difference between Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrotectomy?3. Why the secretion of gut hormone in adjustable gastric banding (AGB) is mainly considered to be due to weight loss?4. What is the possible role for GLP-1 in bariatric surgery?5. Which experiments support the hypothesis that GLP-1 is directly involved in improvement of glycemia in gastric bypass in animal and humans?6. Explain why reduction in ghrelin secretion in bariatric surgery would be beneficial on glucose homeostasis?7. Explain why improvement seen in diabetes in some type of bariatric surgery is independent of weight loss?8. What did you find most interesting or difficult? Answers: 1. The most commonly used restrictive bariatric procedure worldwide is adjustable gastric banding (AGB). 2. In the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery a major part of the stomach, duodenum and 40 cm of the jejunum are bypassed whereas the sleeve gastrotectomy involves the removal of 75% of the stomach, thr removed part includes the hormone secreting gastric fundus.3. The gastrointestinal tract remains intact as a result of the AGB surgery and continues to secrete gut hormones. However, the reduced intake capacity of the diabetic patient causes weight loss and leads to better glucose homeostasis and the improved glucose levels are independent of change in gut hormone secretion levels.4. The secretion of GLP-1 which is low in obese patients shoots up by six times after bariatric surgery. An incretin hormone, GLP-1 signals satiety and stimulates secretion of insulin. It suppresses glucagon secretion and retards gastric emptying. The increased levels of GLP-1 therefore improve glucos e homeostasis in patients who have undergone bariatric surgery. However, the levels of GLP-1 are not raised in adjustable banding surgery as opposed to bariatric procedures which involve removal of parts of the GI tract.5. A set of experiments performed on rats and humans supports the hypothesis that GLP-1 is directly involved in improvement of glucose homeostasis in gastric bypass treated subjects.Exendin 9 - 39 amide (Ex-9) has been used to study the physiological activity of GLP-1. Ex-9 is known to block GLP-1 activity by binding to its receptors. GLP-1 action causing release of post prandial insulin gets blocked without any impact on other hormones required for insulin secretion. Diabetic rats that were treated with a duodenal-jejunal bypass (an RYGB-like surgical procedure) exhibited improved glucose homeostasis in comparison with sham-operated rats.Ex-9 has been used in humans to check whether high secretion of insulin in RYGB treated patients can be attributed to GLP-1 induced secretion of insulin from beta cells causing post-surgical hypoglycemia. Administration of Ex-9 resulted in a 33% fall in insulin secretion.6. The removal of gastric fundus during bariatric surgery causes reduction in ghrelin secretion. This hormone is known to stimulate appetite. It inhibits insulin secretion through a mechanism yet to be clearly understood. Ghrelin suppresses adiponectin a hormone that plays a role in insulin sensitization and causes stimulation of counter regulatory hormones. Ghrelin secretion is affected by the vagus nerve which is severed during bariatric procedures on purpose. The secretion of ghrelin continues after the procedure during which the vagus nerve remains intact.7. Improvement in glucose homeostasis has been seen in diabetics who have been treated with bariatric surgery irrespective of weight loss. The sudden rise in GLP-1 post bariatric procedures that reduce ghrelin secretion leads to greater satiety and insulin secretion. The duodenal bypass may cause higher levels of gut hormones to be released which directly improve insulin sensitivity.Secretion of diabetogenic gut secretions is reduced. Alterations in bile acids and gut microflora can improve glucose homeostasis.8. The role of GLP-1 in achieving glucose homeostasis in patients treated with bariatric surgery is the most interesting and that bypass surgeries may be bypassed in future. References: Jiao, J., Bae, E. J., Bandopadhyay, G., Oliver, J., Marathe, C., Chen, M., Hsu, J.-Y., Chen, Y., Tian, H., Olefsky, J. M., and Saberi, M. (2013). Restoration of euglycemia after duodenal bypass surgery is reliant on central and peripheral inputs in Zucker fa/fa rats. Diabetes. 62: 1074-83.Vetter, M. L., Ritter, S., Wadden, T. A., and Sarwer, D. B. (2012). Comparison of bariatric surgical procedures for diabetes remission: efficiency and mechanisms. Diabetes Spectrum. 25(4):200-10. Doi:10.2337/diaspect.25.4.200.

How to Write an Exemplification Essay Tips, Topics, Rubric

Contents What is an Exemplification Essay? Exemplification Essay Topics List Exemplification Essay Outline Example Exemplification Essay Rubric Formulating a Thesis Statement Top tips for better grades What is an Exemplification Essay? If during your essay writing career it was asked to complete an Argumentative essay then half of the job is already known. The criteria could be compared to and very similar to an exemplification essay, so there is no need to be worried about how to create the paper. Basically, an exemplification essay definition means to prove something by using many examples. It could be said to be like a more involved argumentative essay but with more specific examples incorporating facts and figures is also a good idea. This type of essay could be said to be one of the more clarifying due to listing clear examples to provide evidence on the topic. Exemplification Essay Topics List Here are some examples of exemplification essay topics you could write about: Should the drugs classification system be overhauled Are gun laws tight enough Are political polls proven to be fixed How should children be disciplined Does technology have a negative impact on our lives Do politicians care about their voters People become more self-conscious with age Should medical healthcare be free to everyone Should schools enforce any particular religious beliefs on students Religion in schools and its downsides Religion is a sensitive subject, especially now that atheists have become a lot more aggressive and skeptical. You could take a side on the dispute and argue for or against religious studies in developing teen minds. Why it is bad that developed countries snatch talent from developing countries You could tackle Europe’s immigrant crisis and explore the general reasons for the problem. Most people either seek asylum, or they intend to explore opportunities. You could look at it from an antagonistic point of view which implies that developed countries do not want to take in people because of security risks, or because they want potential reformers to stay within their countries of origin. Why humanity is destined to collapse/succeed Broad topics like humanity’s future, are recommended to be approached with an open and philosophical mind and narrow it down to specifics. The impact of rapidly evolving technology in modern society Companies like SpaceX and Tesla, run by Elon Musk, are a great example to refer to when exploring this domain. With bold predictions of return flights to Mars within the next decade, it is a fascinating matter to wade through. The speed of architectural advancement in the age of the internet People today can experience architecture from the drawn plans which social media implements and the success of the design is gauged by the community reaction. This narrow example does not have to apply only to residential or community architecture, but to street planning and city infrastructure. Friendship Essays about friendship could work as an examination of human attachment and human nature. This type of essay implies a lot of personal examples within its content, which is convenient considering the required criteria of this type of assignment. Soccer moms: a plague or a blessing A mother, so involved in the betterment of her children that she lacks her life agenda. The opposite of parental neglect, perhaps, leads to the lack of freedom and creative expression. In other words, a Soccer Mom can be a positive attribute to a child’s life; but most of the time, it hinders the child’s self-growth. Related: How to Choose Essay Topics Exemplification Essay Outline Example To write the best paper as possible, you should draw up an outline first and plan what is needed in each section. Furthermore will make your assignment easier and faster to complete in the long run. Here is a typical layout to use as a template: Exemplification Essay Rubric The exemplification essay is assessed on specific criteria that define the writer’s ability to integrate them in their essay. The following is a foundation you need to base the piece on. You should be able to clearly identify the specific instances of the use of each of these: Thesis Does the thesis adequately unify all subtopics presented in the essay? Is it well written within the context of the subject matter and the introductory paragraph? Example Quality Are examples effectively used to clarify and explain the generalization presented to the reader? Example Amount Are the given examples sufficient when presented within the context of the claim? Logical Order Are opinions, ideas, examples and paragraphs arranged coherently? Transitions / bridge Are the used transitions effective when directed from one topic/idea/example to the next? Detail Are the examples developed sufficiently to maximize their usefulness? Does the writer’s argument clearly portray their side in the discussion? Grammar and Mechanics Are there more than a few grammatical errors? Does the writer effectively use language to persuade the reader? Word Usage Does the range of the vocabulary convey sophistication within the writer’s voice? Introducing your work An ideal place to start when drafting your exemplification essay would be crafting your introduction. So firstly, you should make a â€Å"hook† to intrigue the audience into the work and want to continue reading. It is a good idea to give a brief background into what the topic is about and give details of what you will do. To learn more about creating intriguing hooks check out the free guide, which will benefit a writer's work for future projects. Once the opening â€Å"Hook† is written, include a thesis statement. A typical exemplification essay thesis statement could look like this: â€Å"Medicinal Marijuana is a life-saving drug in certain circumstances, proven to have useful applications in many diseases like Parkinson's. Legalizing it for medical reasons would have many benefits to the health sector and the treatment of patients.† Formulating a Thesis Statement A thesis is like an architectural blueprint. The thesis's objective is to gather the entire arsenal and summarize it into a comprehensive plan of action. It must include but is not limited to: a factual statement, observation, a personal opinion or the question you intend to answer. The following is a thesis statement example discussed previously in the topic suggestion section. â€Å"Elon Musk’s energy efficiency revolution is still in its early life cycle; thus its slow progress must be put into a socioeconomic perspective.† Now let us put this thesis statement under the microscope. Topic: The impact of rapidly evolving technology in modern society. Opinion: Elon Musk’s progress with the transport and energy revolution is slow due to certain socioeconomic boundaries. Reasoning: Market cost of coal vs. electric (energy), the lack of competition in the electric car market (transport), and the lack of US government’s subsidies into commercial space travel (SpaceX). While the thesis statement is vague, the use of â€Å"socioeconomic perspective† implies a more elaborate description, which the reasoning section of the thesis statement mentioned. Such specifics allow for much room for research and the focus on comprehensive examples as opposed to brief examples. When formulating a thesis statement, you must distinguish between the type of paper you want to write. Longer essays need more extensive thesis statements to encompass a wider range of arguments. If you are struggling with formulating an effective thesis statement, try to apply it to a particular formula to check its validity: â€Å"object acts upon subject because of something.† â€Å"Even though Opposing view (conflicting evidence), your object still acts upon subject because of reasons. As you can see, it is quite easy to dissect the essay just by formulating your thesis, and thus giving you a direction when heading into the exemplification essay outline. Remember, keep track of your sources and extract only the most relevant examples. It is much better to use fewer but more elaborate examples rather than many inefficient ones. Make every single one work in your favor. Body of the Text Firstly plan out which points you have to back up your thesis statement and order them in importance. When writing the body of text, it is a good practice to put the weakest point or statement first then end on the strongest backed point. Remember it is vital to back up every claim or point with strong evidence in the form of an example. There are different kind of example types that could be used in an exemplification essay. Brief example type - Could be a smaller and less descriptive and could generally be a concise idea or concept. Comprehensive examples - Would be better to illustrate a more complex idea or theme that can’t be described with a brief example. Personal example - Are subjective but often from the writer’s own experiences and explain their own thoughts and ideas to portray. Hypothetical exemplar - Can be described as a fictional example based on real statistic or idea but is invented generally to help the reader better understand the term or concept. With this method, the audience can visualize the idea better if it is something difficult to picture. A combination of the two types should be used in the paper to back up points, it is also possible to use many brief examples to support an idea. Try to find as many examples as possible, then later on decide which ones to keep as the strongest evidence. Include interesting yet relevant examples, you do want to just list boring findings. If the research is too predictable this will also not interest the reader so find good cases to include. In order to persuade the reader to your way of thinking, examples can more powerful than pages of an explanation. Also keep the body of the article in some kind of order, either chronological or logical of importance. Conclusion When writing the concluding part to an exemplification essay remember to summarize the key points of the body text first. Do not just copy large paragraphs of the supporting details. After the summary and important findings write a final concluding statement with something that the audience can take away with them. This can be around one or two sentences long and will continue the main idea and may have an interesting question or finding within. Furthermore, it should give the paper a sense of completion so the reader will feel all the ideas tie up nicely. Bibliography If any references are used in the paper they must be cited in the correct way, depending on the topic or whichever format that is asked for. To find out more about citation methods that can be utilized in an exemplification essay check out this free guide. Top Tips for Better Grades Backup every point with clear examples. This is very important as anything stated without backing up with an example will not count for anything and just be included as commentary. Correctly cite any references used. If you have used any citations in your paper then it is needed to include them in the right format. Otherwise, it is possible to be accused of plagiarism and then the work will not count. Use transition words and sentences. The article should flow well and be interesting to read, so introduce phrases like â€Å"for example† and â€Å"furthermore† between sentences and sections. Do not make the paper just a long list of boring examples break it up and make it kinder on the eyes. Check facts and figures stated. When quoting different statistics in the paper do not just believe one source and double check if possible. Also if the source is credible, it is good practice to go back once written and double check the numbers. Is the thesis proven well? The whole paper is based on this statement so check that it is proven well. It is possible to adapt the thesis statement to the findings if after writing you can see an unpredicted trend with the research. Try to use interesting examples. As the paper is mostly based on examples, try to use relevant but also interesting ones. If the article is just made up of predictable examples then the audience will not be so impressed. Does the paper feel complete? Important for any paper with findings and a conclusion that the reader goes away with a sense of completion. If there any findings that do not tie up with the conclusion or the concluding statement is not fulfilling enough then this unbalance the article. Still not enough time to finish, don’t worry! If you feel you are running out of time to research the best examples, then do not worry come to our custom essay page where we have excellent writing and editing services. Unlike other essay writing services, we have a dedicated team of expert writers willing to help you with that exemplification essay so you can enjoy more important things.

Human Papillomavirus essays

Human Papillomavirus essays The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the topic of human disease. Specifically, it will discuss the human papillomavirus. It will include a thorough description of the disease/condition; current statistics of those affected; discuss how the various body systems are affected; and any medications/treatments that are available, if any. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is actually a group of viruses with over 100 different strains ("Genital HPV infection," 2004). At least 30 of these strains are transmitted sexually (STD), and they can affect various areas of the genitals in both males and females. They can also cause complications in pregnancy, and can lead to some types of reproductive and genital cancers. HPV can affect the skin and/or mucous membranes around the genital area, including the anus, penis, and vulva, and can affect the linings of these areas, as well. These viruses are extremely common. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) estimates there may be 20 million or more people infected with HPV in the United States, and about 6.2 million Americans will acquire an HPV infection each year. They also estimate that by age 50, at least 80 percent of women have some type of genital HPV infection ("Genital HPV infection," 2004). In fact, it is currently the most common form of STD. In addition, there are a significant number of people who do not know they suffer from the virus, or do not know they have genital warts. One magazine notes, "According to a nationwide survey of adults ages 18-40, external genital warts remain unrecognized by 97% of respondents as one of the most common STDs" ("Genital Warts Have No Cure," 2004). Since so many women are affected with the different forms of HPV, it is crucial to educate women about the dangers of some HPVs and encourage them to have pap smears annually to ensure their reproductive health. HPVs are classified in two types, low-risk and high-risk. Low-ris...

Transgender and Intersex Terms and Questions (responses) Assignment - 1

Transgender and Intersex Terms and Questions (responses) - Assignment Example A standout amongst the most entrancing things I found is the creators depiction of how individuals see themselves in their inner consciousness. The creator utilizes the MÃ ¶bius Strip, a level lace wound once and afterward joined end to end, which demonstrates a band and ants slithering along a topological riddle - the ground dwelling insect can ceaselessly go on this strip while never getting anyplace. Despite the fact that this book has what added up to 473 pages, the genuine perusing part is just few pages, with the rest gave to the creators careful notes, in which her grant and exploration are clear. When you wade through the exploratory and specialized language one finds that this is an intriguing and vital examination sexing of the body book in the social order. How would we think about sex and sexuality as a component of an improvement framework, and what particularly do we mean nature? Notwithstanding the extent to which we know about sex, there is still a considerable measure we do not think about our sexuality and how it forms in a singular, instead of on a widespread

Analysis of Merck& Company Inc Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Analysis of Merck& Company Inc - Research Paper Example If a strategy had not been introduced for keeping Merck’s competitiveness at low levels, the following phenomenon would appear: the firm’s ability to face its rivals would be gradually decreased, leading to severe losses in one or more organizational activities. In other words, an aggressive strategy would be the most appropriate for the organization under current market positions. Figure 1 – Total revenue for Merck & Company Inc for the years 2006 up to 2008 (source: case study, p.132) At the same time, the firm’s profits for 2008 have been a bit lower from those of 2007, see Figure 1 above, leading to the assumption that a strategy for securing the survival and the further growth of the organization is necessary. In other words, the annual objective that the firm’s managers have set can be characterized as feasible, an assumption based both on the firm’s performance in the near past but also on the industry’s perspectives and demands . ... The above acquisition will help Merck to achieve two key benefits: to decrease its costs and to increase the range of its products, enhancing its competitiveness in the global market. In fact, acquisitions have been used by the firm for quite long, from 2000 onwards and have been proved quite effective in supporting organizational growth (case study p.130). c) Resource Allocation When referring to organizational environment the term resources can be used for reflecting a high range of organizational elements, including ‘money, material and technology’ (Morgan 169). In the context of strategic management, resource allocation is characterized as quite valuable for the achievement of organizational goals. In fact, resources can be vital even for the survival of the organization, under the terms that without the required resources all business plans can be led to failure (Daft, Murphy and Hugh 557). Indeed, resource allocation refers to the resources that are necessary for a ll operations of each organization, including ‘salaries, equipment, employees and so on’ (Daft, Murphy and Hugh 557). Because of its importance, resource allocation should be based on a plan incorporated in a firm’s corporate strategy (Schermerhorn 138). Changes on a firm’s existing resource allocation can lead to severe conflicts if the changes attempted are not welcomed by one or more groups of stakeholders, such as employees or suppliers (Griffin and Moorehead 514). For example, a decrease of the rewards provided to employees for their performance can result to employees’ protests; these protests could cause severe delays in the completion of

Heavy Metal Accumulation Within Urban Regions of China

Heavy Metal Accumulation Within Urban Regions of China Word Count: 1944 Introduction The adverse health effects associated with heavy metal accumulation within the body are well documented with problems leading to cardiovascular, nervous system, blood and bone diseases. Heavy metals can be easily transferred to human bodies directly through inhalation, ingestion, and absorption from the skin. The predominant pathway of ingestion is through the soil-crop system due to the accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural areas. This is quite prevalent in rural areas of China as waste water is recycled to tend crops which provide the food for the urban population. Alongside wastewater irrigation, solid waste disposal and sludge applications; vehicular exhaust and industrial activities are the major sources of soil contamination with heavy metals, resulting in an increased metal uptake by the food crops grown on such contaminated soils (Khan et al. 2008). In the urban environment itself, a wide range of toxic substances can be released during recycling and disposal in indust rial processes which cause environmental damage and threaten public health. Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, and chromium are an important class of hazardous chemicals that can be released from out-dated industrial practices. Therefore a relationship exists with a high population density within China’s urban centres and heavy metal accumulation within the urban environments (soils, atmosphere and drinking water). Industry and economic activities are more concentrated in urban areas, and cities have become the geographic focus of resource consumption and chemical emissions, which cause many environmental problems (Luo et al. 2012). Heavy industries such as metal smelting, manufacturing, energy production, construction and the coal/fuel combustion techniques associated with the mentioned industries are usually localised within the urban centres of China. This is due to their close proximity to the large percentage of the urbanised population who commute to thei r workplaces, and also double up as consumers (and polluters). Because of this, industries release harmful pollutants as by-products into the atmosphere, or can infiltrate the drinking water, and/or affect soils within close proximity. Heavy metals in urban soils may come from various human activities such as vehicle exhaust, waste disposal, as well as coal and fuel combustion (Chen et al. 2005). A recent emergence is that of electronic waste recycling which is infamous for releasing heavy metals. Biophysical and Socioeconomic Background The cause for the environmental degradation which effects are now widely seen in China are by no means an issue that has sprung up overnight. Domestically, the modernisation drive of the Chinese government over the past 30 years has been the main contributor for the environmental degradation, in that the priority of urbanisation, industrialisation, and a stronger economy with the intent of increasing the standard of living for its citizens (reflected by higher consumption) has placed environmental concerns as inconsequential. Because of this, environmental policies over the past 30 years have been considerably lax or non-existent due to conflicting with economic targets. This deregulation by the environmental sector of the government has granted China unprecedented growth and surpass economic goals, but at great consequence to the environment with widespread pollution in all the major cities. Only recently has the Chinese government realised the magnitude of their actions on the envi ronment which have been revealed through recent studies. The first national soil pollution survey conducted between 2005 and 2013 by the Chinese government’s Environmental Protection Ministry showed that 16.1% of China’s soil and 19.4% of its arable land was contaminated with cadmium, nickel and arsenic (BBC, 2014). China’s rapid and extended period of industrial development with subsequent high pollutant emissions has left many regions with deteriorated land quality and soil pollution. Compared to the surveys conducted between 1986 and 1990, levels of inorganic materials were markedly higher. This has dire consequences for the food security of the Chinese people and both the global community, as China currently relies heavily on grain imports to satisfy the needs of its citizens. The Chinese government set the minimum arable land for food production just over 300 million acres, of which this recent study has shown their available arable land does not meet this minimum meaning that China lacks agricultural self-sufficiency (Pei, 2014). Reversal of the degradation is costly and generally avoided, thus the Chinese government is opting to invest in foreign land and agriculture. Many of the recent surveys and research conducted by the government has had loose affiliation with scientific bodies and subsequently distorted evidence with the intent to strengthen political and economic motives, while masking the true nature of the situation. As a result, initial conservative estimations made by the government are insufficient and by no means an accurate representation of the environmental issues facing China. Internationally, the demand for cheaper Chinese labour and consumables has only perpetuated and reinforced the economic drive and manufacturing capabilities of China over the past 30 years – with the environment suffering due to inadequate regulation, economic priorities and a lack of perception for wider issues such as environmental. Specifically, with the expansion of the global market and increased demand for electrical and electronic products (and their short lifespan), electronic waste has become one of the most rapidly growing problems pertaining to waste in the world. A great quantity of electronic waste originating from developed countries has been transferred to developing countries such as China, India, and some African countries where electronic waste is processed using less advanced technology. A wide range of toxic substances can be released during the recycling and disposal and cause environmental damage and threaten public health, especially those of heavy metal s (Zheng et al. 2013). Management Approaches in the Past It was in 1973 where the Chinese government held its first national conference on environmental protection. For the following 20 years, emphasis was placed on pollution control and prevention as the major cities faced industrial and pesticide pollution. Again in 1983 environmental protection was announced as one of the two basic state policies (the other being family planning, or notoriously known as the ‘one child policy’). However proper action to environmental impact has only occurred relatively recently (the mid to late 1990’s) marked by the issuing of the national strategy of sustainable development: ‘Ten strategic Policies for Environment and Development’ and in 1994 the publishing of ‘Agenda 21’. Subsequently, China has implemented a strategy of two fundamental transformations – the transition from a planned economic system to a socialistic market economic system (Wang 2010). Policies within the 1990’s focused mainly on point source control of pollution from industries, and heavily around catchment systems (due to the problem of contaminated water) in contrast to remediation of areas affected by pollution. As is still problematic today, government bodies responsible for the implementation are hindered by weak institutional capacities and generally lack experience in the new field of environmental management (Wang 2010) leading to confusion between local and central governments in relation to the arbitration of policies. Guidelines of environmental protection have been established through many separate rules and regulations authorised by different government entities at different phases adding to this disarray. Local governments also lacked the financial capacity to compensate residents in natural reserves causing conflict within the communities. Centralisation of this organisation appears to be an ongoing process. Similarly, it is all well and good announcing what is going to be done (albeit vag uely) but whether or not action is taken is another matter. Adding to this significance is that the Chinese government is both the regulator and polluter in many instances, and must realise this. Management Approaches at Present and for the Future Presently, the government has specific planned efforts to protect species and ecosystems and have greatly increased over the past decade, but effectiveness has not kept pace with degradation. Major problems exist such as low levels of staff training, inadequate funding and rampant commercial development. The central government’s large-scale payment for ecosystem services campaigns are remarkable in terms of funding and longevity but program effectiveness remains unclear due to a general lack of science based assessment and conflicting outcomes with positive results that meet program goals (Grumbine Xu 2013). The issue of heavy metal accumulation within soils (be it rural or urban) is not directly targeted with China’s environmental management plans of the future. Although management plans incorporate the cleaning up of industries and practices which will hopefully have flow down affects leading to the reduction of problematic pollution (namely, heavy metals). These new ly implemented, almost ‘ad hoc’ environmental standards may not be up to speed to match the ever increasing economic growth and continual urbanisation. Similarly, implementing policy is one thing, enforcing it is another. In rural areas, China did not begin to invest in water pollution control until 2008 with the Ministries of Environmental Protection and Agriculture expecting coverage of 10% of all villages by 2015. In 2012 and again in 2013, the State Council and Ministry of Environmental Protection issued new national policies and funding to strengthen water use and decrease pollution, but institutional reforms necessary for improved implementation have not been addressed (Grumbine Xu 2013). Reformation of current environmentally specific laws (water, biodiversity, conservation) and forging of legal management mandates between provinces and government bureaus within their specific areas, alongside encouraging more policy participation from citizens, non-government o rganisations and businesses is desirable. Some of these reforms go against current government norms, but international scholars believe that significant environmental degradation impacts (such as water scarcity or hazardous materials) will drive more cooperative institutional behaviour (Grumbine Xu 2013). There is little interdisciplinary framework to address the lack of policy connections within and across China’s social–ecological systems. At the national level, ministerial actions often lack coordination and officials often do not have the capacity to enforce regulations. There are disconnects between central and local decision making; at local levels, Beijing’s edicts are subject to behaviour where officials often act contrary to central government mandates resulting in poor policy implementation. With environmental problems now openly acknowledged but solutions still far off, and already-unprecedented urbanisation rates gaining speed. But there still are n o functional national-level regulations in place to guide the largest and most rapid urban expansion in world history (Grumbine Xu 2013). Conclusions and Recommendations After three decades of unconstrained economic growth, China’s social and ecological debts are coming due. The new Chinese leadership has a full agenda yet measured against broad adaptive capacity standards, thus the government remains weak at solving complex, cross-cutting problems. Experts are in agreement that open information exchange, government transparency, institutional coordination, public and private sector participation, iterative decision making and conflict resolution are critical to resolving environmental and social issues under 21st century conditions. These capacities may have little to do with supporting economic expansion under a command-and-control decision making system, but they are recommended repeatedly to solve governance problems in a world of decreasing resources and increasing uncertainty. China must realise that it is both the polluter and regulator so must mediate the two with particularly stronger enforcement of environmental concerns. Short term economic goals should not outweigh the long term importance of the environmental order. Soil is an important component of urban ecosystems, thus its quality must be recognised and integrated into environmental monitoring and management programs. Extensive investigations into urban soil contamination in China have been conducted in the last 25 years but prove inadequate. Given the importance of urban soils, future research should focus on making comprehensive assessments of urban soil quality for better city planning and the sustainable management of urban soil resources. Since metals and organic pollutants have been found many cities of China, these and other emerging contaminants should be included in a multi-compartmental environmental surveillance of urban areas. Biological indicators could be used such as plant, soil invertebrate and microbial assays leading to an improved assessment of soil quality than physico-chemical measurements alone. Attention should be paid towards semi- rural and peri-urban agriculture practices with potential to human health implications. In addition to routine urban soil surveys, a land use-based and environmental availability-based integrated risk assessment framework of pollutants for urban soils needs to be developed in China (Luo et al. 2012). References BBC news China, 18th April 2014, ‘Report: One fifth of China’s soil contaminated’ http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27076645 Chen H, Zheng C, Tu C, Zhu Y, 1999, ‘Heavy metal pollution I soils in China: Status and countermeasures’, Ambio, Vol. 28, pp. 130-134 Chen TB, Zheng YM, Lei M, Huang ZC, Wu HT, Chen H, Fan KK, Yu K, Wu X and Tian QZ, 2005, ‘Assessment of heavy metal pollution in surface soils of urban parks in Beijing, China’, Chemosphere, Vol. 60, pp. 542-551 Grumbine RE Xu J, 2013, ‘Recalibrating China’s environmental policy: The next 10 years’, Biological Conservation, Vol. 166, pp. 287-292 Khan S, Cao Q, Zheng YM, Huang YZ and Zhu YG, 2008, ‘Heath risks of heavy metals in contaminated soils and food crops irrigated with wastewater in Beijing, China’, Environmental Pollution, Vol. 152, pp. 686-692 Luo X, Shen Y, Zhu Y, Li X, 2012, ‘Trace metal contamination in urban soils of China’, Science of the Total Environment, pp. 17-30 Pei M, 18th April 2014, ‘China’s soil pollution: It’s much worse than you think’, Fortune Magazine, http://fortune.com/2014/04/18/chinas-soil-pollution-its-much-worse-than-you-think/ Wang L, 2010, ‘The changes of China’s environmental policies in the latest 30 years’, Procedia Environmental Sciences, Vol. 2, pp. 1206-1212 Zheng J, Chen K, Yan X, Chen S, Hu G, Peng X, Yuan J, Mai B, Yang Z, 2013, ‘Heavy metals in food, house dust, and water from an e-waste recycling area in South China and the potential risk to human health’, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 96, pp. 205-212

Learning theories Essay

Primary research consists of the collection of original primary data. It is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by reviewing secondary research or by analyzing previously collected primary data. It can be accomplished through various methods, including questionnaires and telephone interviews in market research, or experiments and direct observations in the physical sciences, amongst others. Secondary Research: Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments. The term is widely used in medical research and in market research. The principal methodology in medical secondary research is the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical techniques, although other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews and meta-narrative[2] reviews, have been developed in recent years. Such secondary research uses the primary research of others typically in the form of research publications and reports. In a market research context, secondary research is taken to include the re-use by a second party of any data collected by a first party or parties. In archaeology and landscape history, desk research is contrasted with fieldwork. Primary Research Vs Secondary Research One of the major differences between the two is that primary research is conducted with the help of primary sources available where as secondary research is conducted on the basis of some data collected from someone who had got it from the sources. Primary research is expensive to conduct since it involves primary sources. But secondary research is not much expensive as primary. Another major difference between the two is that primary research is much more time consuming as compared to secondary research. As a matter of fact the results found by the primary research are usually to have better quality than those from the conduct of the secondary research. Primary research is also usually detailed and elaborated since it is supposed to be both qualitative as well as quantitative. On the other hand data pertaining to secondary research is usually not much detailed and elaborated since it involves indirect uses. Primary research is done with a lot of hard work and dedication. On the hand secondary research is usually presented with a number of data and records. These are usually taken from books, periodicals published by governmental organizations, statistical data, annual reports and case study ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR. Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structures have on behavior within an organization for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes sociology, psychology, communication, and management; and it complements the academic studies of organizational theory (which is focused on organizational and intra-organizational topics) and human resource studies (which is more applied and business-oriented). It may also be referred to as organizational studies or organizational science. The field has its roots in industrial and organizational psychology. 1 Organizational studies encompass the study of organizations from multiple viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook divides these multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present especially in  American academia, is between the study of â€Å"micro† organizational behaviour — which refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting — and â€Å"macro† strategic management and organizational theory which studies whole organizations and industries, how they adapt, and the strategies, structures and contingencies that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an interest in â€Å"meso† scale structures – power, culture, and the networks of individuals and i. e. ronit units in organizations — and â€Å"field† level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact. Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers’ behavior, as well as the manner in which workers are treated (see Taylor’s scientific management approach compared to the human relations movement of the 1940s). As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful. Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational development, enhancing organizational performance, as well as individual and group performance/satisfaction/commitment. One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, according to Simms (1994), â€Å"to revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life. † An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory, and is concerned to help managers and administrators. 1. INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING. The process of learning has great value for enriching human life in all spheres of life. All activities and behaviors that make personal, social and economic life peaceful and pleasurable are learned. Learning definitely affects human behaviour in organizations. There is little organizational behaviour that is not either directly or indirectly affected by learning. For example, a worker’s skill, a manager’s attitude, a supervisor’s motivation and a secretary’s mode of dress are all learned. Our ability to learn is also important to organizations preoccupied with controlled  performance. Employees have to know what they are to do, how they are to do it, how well they are expected to do it, and the consequences of achieving good or poor levels of performance. Thus, learning theories have influenced a range of organizational practices concerning: 1. The induction of new recruits 2. The design and delivery of job training 3. The design of payment systems- 4. How supervisors evaluate and provide feedback on employee performance 5. The design of forms of learning organization The concept of the learning organization became popular during the 1990s. The learning organization is a configuration of structures and policies which encourage individual learning, with individual and organizational benefits. The organization itself can also be regarded as an entity which is capable of learning independently of its members. Knowledge has thus become a more important asset for many organizations than materials and products. 1. 1 WHAT IS LEARNING Learning covers virtually all behaviors and is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and values, emotional responses (such as happiness and fear), and motor skills (such as operating a computer keyboard or riding a bicycle). We can learn incorrect facts or pick up bad habits in the same way that we learn correct facts and acquire good habits. It refers to a spectrum of changes that occur as a result of one’s experience. Learning may be defined as â€Å"any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioral potential produced by experience†. It may be noted here that some behavioral changes take place due to the use of drugs, alcohol, or fatigue. Such changes are temporary. They are not considered learning. Therefore, changes are due to practice and experience, and relatively permanent, alone are illustrative of learning. In the definition given above, it is clear that the process of learning has certain distinctive characteristics. These are: First, learning always involves some kind of experience. These experiences may be derived from inside the body or they may be sensory, arising outside. The task of inferring whether or not learning has taken place may be an obvious one, but observable behaviour may not always reveal learning. It is important to distinguish between two types of learning. Procedural learning or ‘knowing how’, concerns your ability to carry out particular skilled actions such as riding a horse. Declarative learning or `knowing that’, concerns your store of factual knowledge such as an understanding of the history of our use of the horse. Second, the behavioral changes that take place due to learning are relatively permanent. Behaviour can be changed temporarily by many other factors and in ways which we would not like to call learning. These other factors include growing up or maturation (in children), aging (in adults), drugs, alcohol and fatigue. For example, you must have noticed that whenever one takes a sedative or drug or alcohol, one’s behaviour changes. Each one of these drugs affect physiological functions leading to certain changes in behaviour. Such changes are temporary in nature and disappear as the effect of drugs wears out. Third, learning cannot be observed directly. We can only observe a person’s behaviour and draw the inference from it that learning has taken place. A distinction has to be made between learning and performance. Performance is evaluated by some quantitative and some qualitative measures of output. For example, the number of calls a sales representative makes to customers or the quality of a manager’s chairing of a committee meeting. But, learning acts as a constraint on the outcome. Normally, we cannot perform any better than we have learned, though there are occasions when the right motivational disposition and a supportive environment help to raise the level of performance. Researchers have found that increased motivation may improve our performance up to a point but, beyond this, increased motivation may cause a lowering of the level of performance. 2. PRECONDITIONS FOR LEARNING Two preconditions for learning will increase the success of those who are to participate in such programs: employee readiness and motivation. The condition known as employee readiness refers to both maturational and experiential factors in the employee’s background. Prospective employees should be screened to determine that they have the background knowledge or the skills necessary for learning what will be presented to them. Recognition of individual differences in readiness is as important in an organization as it is in any other learning situation. It is often desirable to group individuals according to their capacity to learn, as determined by scores from tests, or to provide a different or extended type of instruction for those who need it. The other precondition for learning is that the employee be properly motivated. That is, for optimum learning the employee must recognize the need for acquiring new information or for having new skills; and a desire to learn as learning progresses must be maintained. While people at work are motivated by certain common needs, they differ from one another in the relative importance of these needs at any given time. For example, new recruits often have an intense desire for advancement, and have established specific goals for career progression. Objectives that are clearly defined will produce increased motivation in the learning process when instructional objectives are related to individual needs. 3. SOME PREREQUISITES FOR LEARNING After employees have been placed in the learning situation, their readiness and motivation should be assessed further. In addition, facilitators should understand the basic learning issues discussed below. 3. 1 MEANINGFUL MATERIALS In accordance with adult learning theories, the material to be learned should be organized in as meaningful a manner as possible. It should be arranged so that each successive experience builds upon preceding ones so that the employee is able to integrate the experiences into a useable pattern of knowledge and skills. The material should have face validity. 3. 2 REINFORCEMENT Anything which strengthens the employee’s response is called reinforcement. It may be in the form of approval from the instructor or facilitator or the feeling of accomplishment that follows the performance; or it may simply be confirmation by a software program that the employee’s response was correct. It is generally most effective if it occurs immediately after a task has been performed. Behaviour modification, or a technique that operates on the principle that behaviour that is rewarded positively (reinforced) will be exhibited more frequently in the future, whereas behaviour that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency, is often used for such purposes 3. 3 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE Unless what is learned in the development activity is applicable to what is required on the job, the effort will have been of little value. The ultimate effectiveness of learning, therefore, is to be found in the answer to the question: ‘To what extent does what is learned transfer to the job? ’ Helpful approaches include ensuring that conditions in the development program conform as closely as possible to those on the job, and coaching employees on the principles for applying to the job the behaviors which they have learned. Furthermore, once formal instruction has been completed, the supervisor must ensure that the work environment supports, reinforces and rewards the employee for applying the new skills or knowledge. 3. 4 KNOWLEDGE OF PROGRESS As an employee’s development progresses, motivation may be maintained and even increased by providing knowledge of progress. Progress, as determined by tests and other records, may be plotted on a chart, commonly referred to as a learning curve. Exhibit 8. 9 is an example of a learning curve that is common in the acquisition of many job skills. 4. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING A. Distributed Learning: Another factor that determines the effectiveness of learning is the amount of time given to practice in one session. Should training or development be undertaken in five two-hour periods or in 10 one-hour periods? It has been found in most cases that spacing out the activities will result in more rapid learning and more permanent retention. This is the principle of distributed learning. Since the most efficient distribution will vary according to the type and complexity of the task to be learned, it is desirable to make reference to the rapidly growing body of research in this area when an answer is required for a specific learning situation. B. Whole v. Part Learning: Most jobs and tasks can be broken down into parts that lend themselves to further analysis. The analysis of the most effective manner for completing each part then provides a basis for giving specific instruction. Airline flight attendant jobs, for example, involve a combination of mechanistic (specific tasks that follow a prescribed routine), and organic (tasks that involve decision-making and individualized responses) duties, which are best learnt separately, and then combined to form the whole job responsibility. Thus, the prescribed takeoff and landing announcements, and formal safety procedures, are supplemented with separate learning activities about how to deal with difficult passengers or how to cope with food supply problems. In evaluating whole versus part learning, it is necessary to consider the nature of the task to be learned. If the task can be broken down successfully for part learning, it should probably be taught as a unit. C. Practice and Repetition: It is those things we do daily that become a part of our repertoire of skills. Employees need frequent opportunities to practice their job tasks in the manner in which they will ultimately be expected to perform them. The individual who is being taught to operate a machine should have an opportunity to practice on it. Similarly, the supervisor who is being taught how to train should have supervised practice in training D. Multiple Sense Learning: It has long been acknowledged that the use of multiple senses increases learning. Smith and Delahaye state that about 80 per cent of what a person perceives is obtained visually, 11 per cent by hearing and 9 per cent by the other senses combined. It follows that in order to maximize learning, multiple senses of the employees, particularly sight and hearing, should be engaged. Visual aids are therefore emphasized as being important to the learning and development activities. 5. THEORIES OF LEARNING OR APPROCHES TO LEARNING 1. BEHAVIORLIST APPROACH Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay â€Å"Memory† focused on association being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed Aristotle’s thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995). Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner later developed the theory in more detail. Watson is the theorist credited with coining the term â€Å"behaviorism†. The school of adult learning theory that adopted these principles has become known as the school of behaviorism, which saw learning as a straightforward process of response to stimuli. The provision of a reward or reinforcement is believed to strengthen the response and therefore result in changes in behavior – the test, according to this school of thought, is as to whether learning had occurred. Spillane (2002) states, â€Å"the behaviorist perspective, associated with B. F. Skinner, holds that the mind at work cannot be observed, tested, or understood; thus, behaviorists are concerned with actions (behavior) as the sites of knowing, teaching, and learning†. The hypothesis behind behaviorlist learning theories is that all learning occurs when behavior is influenced and changed by external factors. Behavioralism disregards any notion that there may be an internal component to man’s learning. Grippin and Peters (1984) emphasize in regard to an individual’s subjugation to external stimulus as a determinant of response (i. e. , behavior). Contiguity is understood as the timing of events that is necessary to bring about behavioral change, while reinforcement refers to the probability that repeated positive or negative events will produce an anticipated change in behavior. 1. (A) Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Originators and Key Contributors: First described by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist, in 1903, and studied in infants by John B. Watson (1878-1958). Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i. e. , making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning. Pavlov’s Dogs In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled â€Å"psychic reflexes. † While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder. Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i. e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding. In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food. John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans. 1. (B) GOMS Model (Card, Moran, Newell) The GOMS Model is a human information processing model that predicts what skilled users will do in seemingly unpredictable situations. Originators and proponents: Card, Moran and Newell in 1983; Bonnie John et al. This model is the general term for a family of human information processing techniques that attempt to model and predict user behavior. Typically used by software designers, a person’s behavior is analyzed in terms of four components: Goals – something that the person wants to accomplish. Can be high level to low level. Operators – basic perceptual, cognitive, or motor actions used to accomplish goals, or actions that the software allows user to make. Methods – procedures (sequences) of sub-goals and operators that can accomplish a goal Selection rules – personal rules users follow in deciding what method to use in a circumstance 1. (C) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end. Originators and Key Contributors: B. F. Skinner, built upon Ivan Pavlov’s theories of classical conditioning. Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some other prize. Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points. Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time the animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever. The term â€Å"operant conditioning† originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations) Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative. Positive and negative reinforces Positive reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc. Negative reinforces typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative is removed. The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase. Positive and negative punishment Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows. Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in order to weaken the response that follows. Negative punishment is characterized by when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a undesired behavior occurs. The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease. What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e. g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response. 1. (D) Socialist Learning Theory (Bandura). Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Originator: Albert Bandura People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. â€Å"Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. † (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Necessary conditions for effective modeling: 1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e. g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention. 2. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal 3. Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. 4. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such asA past (i. e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model) Bandura believed in â€Å"reciprocal determinism†, that is, the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior, Bandura,who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language). 2. CONSTURCTIVIST Constructivism is a synthesis of multiple theories diffused into one form. It is the assimilation of both behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The â€Å"constructivist stance maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience†. This is a combination effect of using a person’s cognitive abilities and insight to understand their environment. This coincides especially well with current adult learning theory. This concept is easily translated into a self-directed learning style, where the individual has the ability to take in all the information and the environment of a problem and learn. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Originators and important contributors: Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, Bruner Constructivism A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes: Major themes: 1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: â€Å"Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). † 2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers. 3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone. Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills. 3. COGNITIVISM The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the â€Å"black box† of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer). Originators and important contributors: Merrill -Component Display Theory (CDT), Reigeluth (Elaboration Theory), Gagne, Briggs, Wager, Bruner (moving toward cognitive constructivism), Schank (scripts), Scandura (structural learning) The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the â€Å"black box† of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. A response to behaviorism, people are not â€Å"programmed animals† that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes. 3. 1 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt – â€Å"essence or shape of an entity’s complete form†) is a theory of mind and brain of the Berlin School; the operational principle of gestalt psychology is that the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies.